With the pandemic raging outside our windows, our lives have reached a point in which uncertainty looms around every corner. But, our world isn’t defenseless to this pandemic; numerous doctors, nurses, and other healthcare personnel have worked tirelessly to save the lives of many around the world and develop vaccines that can ward off the virus. It’s times like these that make us reflect on one particular aspect of our lives that we took for granted: the field of medicine. From mere speculation and theories to concrete science that saves lives, medicine and healthcare have undergone quite the journey over the course of thousand years.
Before Hippocrates, colds were seen as a way of life, and terminal illnesses were seen as bad omens. Most herbs were found by trial and error; healing methods were primitive, one included drilling a hole into the skull to relieve headaches; and early doctors were medicine men who looked for profit rather than fulfillment in the field. Hippocrates introduced the idea of doctors being protectors and important in the healing process. In the oath he derived, he made sure that doctors only aimed to take care of their patients and prioritize them; ensuring it as the sole drive of a doctor. This was also when medicine took a humanistic approach, valuing the spirit and body. Around the world, different forms of medicine began to form. In China, their medicinal system revolved around the principles of yin and yang, explaining that true health is in balance. Traditional Chinese medicine focused on five elements: water, fire, earth, metal, and wood. The ideas of medicine revolved around chi and the flow of chi throughout the body. Chinese doctors focused on being able to manipulate this energy to acupuncture, acupressure, medicinal herbs, and natural remedies. In India, there was a similar five element system but they focused more on the sciences rather than the spiritual and they studied etiology, the study of causes. Their concepts of medicine could be traced back to the scriptures of the Vedas. Much like other earlier systems, medicine in India dealt with the mystical as well as scientific.
During this time, medical schools started to emerge, where texts were shared and distributed throughout many populations. Not only were students privy to knowledge of different cultures, but they were able to add their own personal thoughts and ideas as well into the script.
Aristotle introduced the 4 humors as the components of the human body. These four humors were black bile, blood, phlegm, and yellow bile. This is similar to the element systems in the sense that there has to be a balance between all four for a human body to function well. This system was further used under Galen, a talented surgeon of his time. Galen was responsible for determining that the brain controls the body rather than the heart and that the process of respiration was assisted by muscles. However, despite being a talented individual who was revered during his time, Galen made a few inaccurate assumptions about blood flow in human bodies; he believed that blood was endlessly supplied by the liver rather than being pumped throughout the body in continuous flow. Back then, human dissection was illegal so Galen had to rely on the use of animal bodies to document what he believed is an approximation of what the human body looks like. Even after human dissection after death became legal, and scientists had direct confirmation of the contrary, no one ever contradicted Galen and his findings. It took hundreds of years for a challenge (Andreas Vesalius) to arise to this theory, and even longer for a proper model of blood flow to form due to many people’ s trust in Galen and the fact that these findings strayed farther and farther from the spiritual origins. William Harvey is credited for describing the flow of blood correctly, pumping throughout the entire body from the heart. This was a turning point, because Aristotle’s teachings were still at the forefront of medicine, and the heart was regarded as spiritual, not a simple organ. This shift in ideology had a great impact throughout the next few hundred years, especially during the 18th century (1700s), where medicine separated from a part that focused on the cultural part: humanities. Now, science was considered the “norm” rather than providing emphasis on humanity. Due to this change, students were allowed to choose which branch of science they wanted to pursue, specialization in smaller subsections increased, and students were now selected based on scientific ability.
The 1800s, however, was a monumental turning point for medicine and healthcare. For instance, most of the human body was documented and known to scientists and cells were conceptualized, allowing for increased understanding towards diseases and just how our bodies work on a molecular level. The discovery of cells led to further evidence for the Germ Theory, which concluded that some diseases (infections) were caused by tiny living organisms. Louis Pasteur’s experiments with fermentation (which was caused by microorganisms) helped Joseph Lister come up with the antiseptic for surgery. Because of these advancements, human life expectancy rose and death rates decreased immensely. Some other discoveries during this time include anesthesia, the popularization of inoculation (which was used in the 1700s in Europe, and the beginnings of Freudian Psychology. This was a moment in time where science truly began to branch out and scientists began advancing on the theories of their predecessors and surgery also started to drastically change, becoming more calculated, safe, and professional.
The 1900s brought about a lot of changes in the medical field, due in huge part to the World Wars that ravaged global society, leaving impacts that still affect modern generations. During this era, advancements were made in many subsections in medicine and technological innovations like CAT scans and sonar allowed for diagnostic tests for some diseases. In the years following the World Wars, doctors were also able to achieve a higher understanding of cell biology, which debunked misconceptions from the past. With the Spanish Flu Pandemic, the world was able to study the impact of infectious diseases on a global rate, and this also forced the public to consider what they should do in case such a situation like this ever came up again. Pathogenic diseases were also classified: polio, measles, and typhus to name a few. Immunology also took many great strides, with antibiotics gaining more ground in the medical field. Some vaccines that were developed during this time include the diphtheria vaccine (whooping cough) and the tuberculosis vaccine. Not only were doctors able to fight off these diseases, but they were able to offer real preventative advice to make sure that people would be at low risk to fall ill.
In the present day, medicine is more effective and reliable than it ever has been. But this was something that was achieved through the mingling of ideas, constant trial and error, and persistent evolution throughout the field and its different studies. Medicine has a long history, and without that history, it wouldn’t be where it is now. It is a field that is absolutely vital during this time, and while trials are needed to advance, it is a heavily risky field. But, the amount of ingenuity, determination, and perseverance it takes to be in this field deserved to be applauded, and should be valued everyday.
Works cited:
Green, John. Performance by Hank Green, Ancient & Medieval Medicine: Crash Course History of Science #9, CrashCourse, 4 June 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=iGiZXQVGpbY.
Bogaty, Anton, director. Performance by Ramon Glazov, Ancient Rome’s Most Notorious Doctor - Ramon Glazov, TedEd, 18 July 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=r1BhsWsmjco.
Performance by John Geeter, An Incredibly Brief History of Medicine, PrimeNetworkInt, 13 Feb. 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=MtAjIG45O64.
“Medicine in the 18th Century.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century#ref35662.
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